A Review of the Prospects in the Control of Phytophthora Megakarya in Cocoa Production
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33003/Keywords:
Phytophthora megakarya, Black pod disease, Cocoa production, Biological control, Integrated disease managementAbstract
Cocoa is one of the most economically valuable cash crops globally, and production is limited by black pod disease caused by Phytophthora megakarya. P. megakarya is a devastating pathogen that causes significant yield losses in key cocoa-growing regions in West and Central Africa, and poses a threat to cocoa productivity, farmer livelihood, and the global cocoa supply. This review explores the current and future opportunities for the control of P. megakarya, with focus on sustainable and integrated disease management strategies that are enabled by recent advances in host plant resistance, molecular breeding, and genomic technologies, as well as biotechnological approaches such as gene-editing and genetic transformation to enhance cocoa defense mechanisms. The review also emphasizes the role of biological control agents and plant-derived antifungal compounds, as well as agroecological practices, climate-smart farming systems, and digital agriculture technologies for improving disease monitoring, prediction, and management, although challenges with climate change, the variable field performance of biological products, and limited adoption of emerging technologies remain. The review concludes that a combination of resistant varieties, biological and botanical control agents, cultural practices, precision agriculture, and judicious fungicide use offers the most sustainable pathway for the long-term control of P. megakarya and the resilience of cocoa production systems.
References
Akrofi, A. Y., Amoako-Atta, I., Assuah, M., & Asare, E. K. (2015). Black pod disease on cacao (Theobroma cacao, L) in Ghana: spread of Phytophthora megakarya and role of economic plants in the disease epidemiology. Crop Protection, 72, 66-75.
Alsadik, B., Ellsäßer, F. J., Awawdeh, M., Al-Rawabdeh, A., Almahasneh, L., Oude Elberink, S., ... & Al Asmar, Y. (2024). Remote sensing technologies using UAVs for pest and disease monitoring: A review centered on date palm trees. Remote sensing, 16(23), 4371.
Baruah, I. K., Ali, S. S., Shao, J., Lary, D., & Bailey, B. A. (2022). Changes in gene expression in leaves of cacao genotypes resistant and susceptible to Phytophthora palmivora infection. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 780805.
Carlos, N. G. A. B., Koutoua, S., Mah, E., Desirée, B. Z. L. A., Junior, Y. W., Jocelin, N. C. A., ... & Hortense, A. D. (2025). Antifungal activity of three plant extracts on phytophthora sp., responsible for brown rot of cocoa pods (Theobroma cacao L.) In Soubre and Agboville two localities in Cote d'Ivoire: antifungal activity of three plant extracts on phytophthora sp., responsible for brown rot of cocoa pods (Theobroma cacao L.). International Journal of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, 18(2), 149-161.
Cilas, C., & Bastide, P. (2020). Challenges to cocoa production in the face of climate change and the spread of pests and diseases. Agronomy, 10(9), 1232.
Danial, N. D. N., Asib, N., Sadi, T., & Ismail, S. I. (2025). Evaluation of Morinda citrifolia Leaf Extract Against Phytophthora palmivora in Controlling Stem Canker on Durian (Durio zibethinus). Malaysian Applied Biology, 54(1), 24-37.
de Oliveira Santos, T. L., Araújo Tavares da Silva, F. L., Araujo Dionizio da Silva, D., & Efraim, P. (2025). Exploring the Research Evolution of Cacao Diseases Over the Past Two Decades: A Review. Plant Pathology, 74(6), 1470-1494.
Delgado-Ospina, J., Molina-Hernandez, J. B., Chaves-Lopez, C., Romanazzi, G., & Paparella, A. (2021). The role of fungi in the cocoa production chain and the challenge of climate change. Journal of Fungi, 7(3), 202.
Foka, E. T., Magni, T. F. P., Tene, P. M. T., Dzelamonyuy, A., Onomo, P. E., Boudjeko, T., & Ewane, C. A. (2025). A Bioformulation of oyster shell, neem, sida, and citronella extracts boosts cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) seedling development and resistance to black pod disease caused by Phytophthora megakarya. Journal of Natural Pesticide Research, 100163.
Guiltinan, M. J., Landherr, L., Maximova, S. N., DelVecchio, D., Sebastian, A., & Albert, I. (2026). Reduced Susceptibility to Phytophthora in Non‐Transgenic Cacao Progeny Through CRISPR–Cas9 Mediated TcNPR3 Mutagenesis. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 24(2), 442-454.
Lahlali, R., Ezrari, S., Radouane, N., Kenfaoui, J., Esmaeel, Q., El Hamss, H., ... & Barka, E. A. (2022). Biological control of plant pathogens: A global perspective. Microorganisms, 10(3), 596.
Larbi-Koranteng, S., Awuah, R. T., & Kankam, F. (2020). Biological control of black pod disease of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) with Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp. in vitro and in the field. Journal of microbiology and antimicrobials, 12(2), 52-63.
Merga, J. (2022). Epidemiology and management strategies of cocoa black pod (Phytophthora spp.). Plant Pathology & Quarantine, 12(1), 34-39.
Olaomi, A. A. (2023). Potential of crude aqueous extract of Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed) as biofungicide in modern cocoa farming. In P. Oyadiran, P. O. Ojo, A. Olatunde, & I. C. Adewunmi (Eds.), Festschrift: Explorations in science and humanities (pp. 172–187). Ela Academics.
Talero, L. H. (2024). An optimization model for Theobroma cacao yield maximization based on smart farming technologies. Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Autónoma de Bucaramanga UNAB.
Tijani, S. (2025). Sustainable cocoa farming: Exploring the role of climate-smart agricultural practices in enhancing yields in Southwest Nigeria. Federal University Wukari General Studies Journal. 4(1).
Winters, N. P. (2022). Evolutionary and functional Genetics of disease resistance in Theobroma Cacao and its wild relatives. The Pennsylvania State University.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Adeyemi Afeez Olaomi, Gbolabo Odewale, Mohammed Nasirudeen Suleiman, Gbenga Olorunshola Alege, Justinah Edith Braimoh
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
