Geochemical and Mineralogical Processes Controlling Gold Mineralization in the Ilesha-Ifewara Belt of Southwestern
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2026-1012-5002Keywords:
Gold, Mineralization, Variation diagrams, Alteration, TectonicsAbstract
This study presents a novel integration of tectonic discrimination diagrams and mineralogical characterization to investigate the geochemical and mineralogical controls on gold mineralization in soils derived from the Precambrian Pan-African Basement Complex of the Ilesha–Ifewara Belt, southwestern Nigeria. Fieldwork involved systematic sampling of B- horizon lateritic profiles samples across Araromi (Ile-Ife), Ilesha, Iwara and Ifewara, areas historically recognized for auriferous quartz veins and structurally controlled mineralization. Major and trace element concentrations were determined using X-ray Fluorescence and Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, while mineral phases were characterized by X-ray Diffraction and Scanning Electron Microscopy. Geochemical variation diagrams, including K₂O/Na₂O vs SiO₂ and Ba-Rb- Nb plots, reveal a consistent Oceanic Island Arc signature, indicating that the regolith inherits its chemistry from arc-related igneous protoliths emplaced during the Pan-African orogeny. The soils are silica (50 – 56 wt%) - and alumina (26-30 wt%) -rich, with marked depletion of CaO (>2 wt%), Na₂O (>0.5wt%) and K₂O (>1.0 wt%) and strong enrichment of immobile oxides (Al₂O₃ (< 25 wt%), TiO₂ (<1.0 wt%)), reflecting prolonged tropical lateritization. Gold occurs in association with cobalt, zinc, and nickel, while ternary diagrams highlight cobalt as a robust pathfinder, correlating with the highest gold values. The results demonstrate that integrating geochemical variation diagrams with mineralogical data effectively identifies the tectonic setting, alteration processes, and pathfinder elements of gold deposits. The findings provide a scientific framework for exploration in the Ife-Ilesha Schist Belt and similar West African terrains, underscoring the importance of lateritic geochemistry for targeting concealed orogenic gold mineralization.
References
Adekoya, J. A. (1976). Geology and geochemistry of the gold bearing quartz veins of Ilesha area, southwestern Nigeria. Nigerian Mining and Geosciences Society Bulletin, 15, 23-34.
Adeoti, B., & Okonkwo, C. T. (2016). Structural Geology of the Basement Complex Rocks in Iwaraja Area, Southwestern Nigeria. International Letters of Natural Sciences, 58, 16–28. https://doi.org/10.56431/p-m654ru
Adetula, Y.V., Ozah, B., Alabi, O. O., & Marindoti, D. M. (2019). Chemical and Mineralogical Studies of Gold-bearing Rock in Iperindo, Ilesha Goldfield, Southwest Nigeria. American Journal of Nanosciences. Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 43-47. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajn.20190504.13
Adetunji, A., Olarewaju, V. O., Ocan, O. O., Macheva, L., & Ganev, V. Y. (2018). Geochemistry and U-Pb zircon geochronology of Iwo quartz potassic syenite, southwestern Nigeria: Constraints on petrogenesis, timing of deformation and terrane amalgamation. Precambrian Research, 307, 125–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2018.01.015
Ajayi, T. R., and Ogedengbe, O. (2003). Opportunity for the exploitation of precious and rare metals in Nigeria. In Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference of the Nigerian Mining and Geosciences Society (pp. 15-28). Nigerian Mining and Geosciences Society.
Ajibade A. C., Anyanwu, N. P. C., Okoro, A. U. & Nwajide, C. S. (2008). The Geology of Minna area. Nigeria Geological Survey Agency Bulletin No 43.
Akande, S. O., Zentilli, M., & Reynolds, P. H. (2002). Fluid inclusion and stable isotope studies of Au-quartz veins in the Malumfashi area, Kazaure schist belt, NW Nigeria. Mineralium Deposita, 37(8), 833-844.
Ali, A. M., Kwaya, M.Y. & Aminu, A. A. (2024) Investigating the mineralogical and geochemical composition of fluvial sediments of Watari river system, Kano, Nigeria, Kuwait Journal of Science, Volume 51, Issue 1,2024,100151,ISSN 2307-4108, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjs.2023.11.002
Allibone, A., Teasdale, J., Cameron, G., Etheridge, M., Uttley, P., Soboh, A., Appiah-Kubi, J., Amponsah, P. O., Salvi, S., Béziat, D., Siebenaller, L., Baratoux, L., & Jessell, M. W. (2015). Geology and geochemistry of the shear-hosted Julie gold deposit, NW Ghana. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 112, 505–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2015.06.013
Asiedu, D. K., Suzuki, S., Shibata, T., & Asiedu, M. M. (2017). Geochemistry of lower Paleoproterozoic metavolcanics from southern Ghana: Petrogenetic and tectonic setting implications. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 131, 256-274.
Bacha, R. R. B., Toledo, C. L. B., Silva, A. M., & Mungall, J. E. (2021). Alkali element mobility as a vector for gold mineralization: An example from Central Brazil. Geochemistry, 81(4), 125808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2021.125808
Bamba, O., Ouedraogo, M. F., Yao, B., & Pons, J. (2002). Structure and metamorphism of the Birimian of Burkina Faso. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 34(3-4), 169-175.
Barrett, T., Cattalani, S., & MacLean, W. (1993). Volcanic lithogeochemistry and alteration at the Delbridge massive sulfide deposit, Noranda, Quebec. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 48(2), 135-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-6742(93)90003-5
Boamah, D., & Koeberl, C. (2006). Geochemical characteristics of Birimian sedimentary rocks from Ghana: Implications for provenance and crustal evolution of the West African Craton. Precambrian Research, 148(1-2), 86-106.
Bowell, R. J., Morley, N. H., & Din, V. K. (1993). Arsenic speciation in soil porewaters from the Ashanti mine, Ghana. Applied Geochemistry, 8(1), 15-22.
Carranza, E. J. M., & Sadeghi, M. (2010). Predictive mapping of prospectivity for gold, base metal and gemstone deposits in Ghana. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 56(2-3), 68-80.
Cheikh, A. Bamba, N., David, Baratoux, Pierre Rochette, Regis Braucher, Wolf Uwe Reimold, et al.. 2022. The origin of the potassium-rich annular zones at the Bosumtwi impact structure, Ghana, investigated by field study, radiometric analysis, and first cosmogenic nuclide data. Meteoritics and Planetary Science, 57, pp.702-729. ⟨10.1111/maps.13788⟩. ⟨insu-03661016⟩
De Kock, G. S., Armstrong, R. A., Siegfried, H. P., & Thomas, E. (2011). Geochronology of the Birim Supergroup of the West African craton in the Wa-Bolé region of west-central Ghana: Implications for the stratigraphic framework. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 59(1), 1-40.
Damanik, A., Wille, M., Ahmad, Q., Chatterjee, S., Crowe, S., Bauer, K., Grosjean, M., Cahyarini, S., Bijaksana, S., Russell, J., & Vogel, H., (2024). Low Mo mobility during the laterization of ultramafic bedrock: Evidence from the East Sulawesi Ophiolite, Indonesia. Chemical Geology. 660. 122150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2024.122150
Dommanget, A., Milési, J. P., Diallo, M., Nikiéma, S., Vanderhaeghe, O., Le Métour, J., Ledru, P., & Vinchon, C. (1993). The Birimian orogenic gold mineralization of Burkina Faso. In Proceedings of the 15th Colloquium of African Geology (pp. 298-305). Balkema.
Dufréchou, G., et al. (2024). Exploration and mining of lateritic gold deposits (Part I): Ore formation, characterization, and sampling of ferruginous gravel and duricrust. Ore Geology Reviews, 170, 106146.
Elueze, A.A. & Bolarinwa, A.T. (2004). Petrochemistry and petrogenesis of graniticgneisses of Abeokuta area, southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Mining and Geology, Vol. 40. No.1: 1-8. (Nigeria)
Eshimiakhe, D., Jimoh, R., & Alhassan, I., 2019. Geophysical investigation of the seismogenic monitoring center, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Applied Journal of Physical Science. Volume 1(1), pages 1-7, https://doi.org/10.31248/AJPS2018.012
Feybesse, J. L., Billa, M., Guerrot, C., Duguey, E., Lescuyer, J. L., Milési, J. P., & Bouchot, V. (2006). The paleoproterozoic Ghanaian province: Geodynamic model and ore controls, including regional stress modeling. Precambrian Research, 149(3-4), 149-196.
Gajere, J.N., Kudamnya, E.A., & Andongma, W.T., 2018. Geospatial Profiling for Threshold mapping of hydrothermal alterations within Kushaka Schist belt North Central Nigeria: Implications for Mineral Exploration. Asian J. Geol. Res. 1 (1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.9734/AJOGER/2018/41113
Garba, I. (2002). Late Pan-African tectonics and origin of gold mineralization and rare-metal pegmatites in the Kushaka schist belt, northwestern Nigeria. Journal of Mining and Geology, 38(1), 1-12.
Goldfarb, R. J., André-Mayer, A. S., Jowitt, S. M., & Mudd, G. M. (2017). West Africa: The world's premier paleoproterozoic gold province. Economic Geology, 112(1), 123-143.
Goldfarb, R. J., & Groves, D. I. (2015). Orogenic gold: Common or evolving fluid and metal sources through time. Lithos, 233, 2–26.
Groves, D. I., Goldfarb, R. J., Gebre-Mariam, M., Hagemann, S. G., & Robert, F. (1998). Orogenic gold deposits: A proposed classification in the context of their crustal distribution and relationship to other gold deposit types. Ore Geology Reviews, 13, 7–27.
Hein, K. A. A. (2010). Succession of structural events in the Goren greenstone belt (Burkina Faso): Implications for West African tectonics. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 56(2-3), 83-94.
Horstwood, M. S. A., Nesbitt, R. W., Noble, S. R., & Wilson, J. F. (1999). U-Pb zircon evidence for an extensive early Archean craton in Zimbabwe: A reassessment of the timing of craton formation, stabilization, and growth. Geology, 27(8), 707-710.
Iglesias-Martínez, M., Salama, W., Anand, R-R. Butt, C-R.M., & Espí, J. A. (2024)
Exploration and mining of lateritic gold deposits (Part I): Ore formation, characterization, and sampling of ferruginous gravel and duricrust, Ore Geology Reviews, Volume 170, 106146, ISSN 0169-1368, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2024.106146
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169136824002798)
Jessell, M. W., Amponsah, P. O., Baratoux, L., Asiedu, D. K., Loh, G. K., & Ganne, J. (2012). Crustal-scale transcurrent shearing in the Paleoproterozoic Sefwi-Sunyani-Comoé region, West Africa. Precambrian Research, 212-213, 155-168.
Jones, H. A., & Hockey, R. D. (1964). The geology of part of South-Western Nigeria. Geological Survey of Nigeria Bulletin 31, 101p.
Kesse, G. O. (1985). The mineral and rock resources of Ghana. Balkema Publishers.
Ledru, P., Pons, J., Milési, J. P., Dommanget, A., & Johan, V. (1991). Structural and metamorphic evolution of the Birimian of southwest Niger: Implications for crustal evolution of the West African Craton. Geologische Rundschau, 80(2), 287-302.
Leube, A., Hirdes, W., Mauer, R., & Kesse, G. O. (1990). The early Proterozoic Birimian Supergroup of Ghana and some aspects of its associated gold mineralization. Precambrian Research, 46(1-2), 139-165.
MacLean, W. H., & Barrett, T. J. (1993). Lithogeochemical techniques using immobile elements. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 48(2), 109–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-6742(93)90002-4
Meyer, F. M. (2023). Case Histories of Orogenic Gold Deposits. Minerals, 13(3), 369.
Milési, J. P., Feybesse, J. L., Pinna, P., Deschamps, Y., Kampunzu, H., Muhongo, S., Lescuyer, J. L., Le Goff, E., Delor, C., Billa, M., Ralay, F., & Heinonen, A. (2004). Geological map of Africa 1:10,000,000, SIGAfrique project. 20th Colloquium of African Geology, BRGM, Orléans, France. Nigerian Geological Survey Agency. (2006). Geological map of Nigeria. NGSA Publications.
Nwokeabia, N., Iduma, U. & Ibe, S.O., 2018. Evaluating the economic potential of part of Ife-Ilesha schist Belt, Western Nigeria, using airborne magnetic and radiometric dataset. Obaje, N. G. (2009). Geology and mineral resources of Nigeria. Springer-Verlag.
Oberthür, T., Mumm, A. S., Vetter, U., Simon, K., & Amanor, J. A. (1996). Gold mineralization in the Ashanti belt of Ghana: Genetic constraints of the stable isotope geochemistry. Economic Geology, 91(2), 289-301.
Ogungbemi, O. S., Oyebode, K., Badmus, G. O., & Ogunyemi, A. T. (2022). Modeling of structural features from aeromagnetic maps using an improved deep learning technique. Earth Science Informatics, 15(4), 2665–2671. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-022-00870-z
Omang, B. K., Godwin, O., Michael & Ukwang, Ekere & Vishiti, Akumbom & Itagbor, F & Asinya, Enah & Gimba, I & Arikpo, T & Edem, S. (2026). Baseline Gold Microchemical Data From Parts of The Ilesha-Osu Segment of The Ilesha-Isanlu Schist Belt, Southwestern Nigeria. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjpas.v32i4.1
Ondobo, H.M., Bamisaiye, O.A., Ndepete, C.P. et al. Petrogenesis of the Precambrian basement rocks in the Bogoin area, southwestern Central African Republic. Discov Geosci 4, 151 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44288-026-00522-5
Oyinloye, A. O. (2011). Geology and geotectonic setting of the basement complex rocks in southwestern Nigeria: Implications on provenance and evolution. In I. Ahmad Dar (Ed.), Earth and Environmental Sciences. InTech.
Perera, L. R. K. (2013). Re: What is the difference between island arcs and island oceanic basalts in terms of isotopic signature and trace elements? Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/post/What-is-the-difference-between-island-arcs-and-island-oceanic-basalts-in-terms-of-isotopic-signature-and-trace-elements/5285db61cf57d785518b46e1/citation/download
Rahaman, M. A. (1976). Review of the basement geology of South-Western Nigeria. In C. A. Kogbe (Ed.), Geology of Nigeria (pp. 41-58). Elizabethan Publishing Co.
Rahaman, M. A. (1988). Recent advances in the study of the basement complex of Nigeria. Symposium on the Geology of Nigeria, Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria. p. 68
Salau, S. I., Danbatta, U. A. & Agunleti, Y. S. (2016). The interpretation of aeromagnetic and satellite imagery for structures coincident with Gold mineralization in Anka Schist Belt,
Salawu, N. B., Fatoba, J. O., Adebiyi, L. S., Ajadi, J., Saleh, A., & Dada, S. S. (2020). Aeromagnetic and remote sensing evidence for structural framework of the middle Niger and Sokoto basins, Nigeria. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 309, 106593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pepi.2020.106593
Journal of Applied Geology and Geophysics ( IOSR-JAGG), 4 (5): 29 – 34. https://doi.org/10.9790/0990-0405022934
Siméon, Y., Delor, C., Koné, Y., Adou, M., & Aka, K. (1995). Carte géologique de la Côte d'Ivoire à l'échelle 1/200 000. Ministère des Mines et de l'Énergie, République de Côte d'Ivoire.
Sunkari, E. D., Appiah-Twum, M., & Lermi, A. (2018). Using laterite geochemistry for exploration of orogenic gold deposits in the Wa-Lawra Belt, NW Ghana: Kunche in perspective. Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University Journal of Engineering Sciences, 7(3), 1098–1110
Talaat, M. R. & Mohammed, F. A. (2010). Characterization of gold mineralization in Garin hawal area, Kebbi state, NW Nigeria, using remote sensing. The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences (2010), 13, 153–163.
Tshibubudze, A., Hein, K. A. A., & Marquis, P. (2009). The Markoye au deposit, northeast Burkina Faso, West Africa. Economic Geology, 104(6), 831-849.
Usman, A., Osinowo, O., Abdulrasheed, S., & Usman, Q. (2020). Geochemical Characterization of Gold and Associated Elements in Iperindo, Ilesha Schist Belt, Southwestern Nigeria.
Yao, Y., & Robb, L. J. (2000). Gold mineralization in Palaeoproterozoic granitoids at Obuasi, Ashanti region, Ghana: Ore geology, geochemistry and fluid characteristics. South African Journal of Geology, 103(3), 255-278
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Oluseyi Adunola Bamisaiye, Oreoluwa Esther Folorunso
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
