ASSESSMENT OF THE PRESENCE OF SIMULIUM SPP BLACKFLIES AND ONCHOCERCIASIS IN SELECTED COMMUNITIES AROUND AWHUM WATERFALLS, A TOURIST SITE IN UDI LGA OF ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2025-0905-3651Keywords:
Onchocerciasis, Blackfly, Onchocerca volvulus, Awhum, TouristAbstract
The study is an assessment of the abundance of blackflies (Simulium spp.) and Onchocerciasis in selected communities around Awhum waterfalls, a tourist site in Udi LGA of Enugu State, Nigeria. For the entomological aspect of this work, traps were set to catch and collect black flies in and around the Awhum Monastery which does not only serve as a tourist site but also a religious pilgrimage ground. Serological screening using Standard diagnostics test kits for Onchocerciasis (SD-Bioline OV16 kits) was used to screen 125 participants, who were members of the communities ranging from ages 5 – 70 years and comprising of 50 males and 75 females. The result revealed that only 28 (22.4%) of the participants were positive while majority 97(77.60%) were negative. Nineteen (19) positive cases were confirmed by molecular analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. Of the total positive cases, more males 16(57.1 4%) than females 12(42.86%) were infected with Oncocerca volvulus. The findings confirmed the presence of blackflies and the endemicity of Onchocerciasis (River Blindness) in communities around the Awhum waterfalls, a tourist site in Awhum, Udi Local Government Area of Enugu State.
References
Akinboye, D. O., Okwong, E., Ajiteru, N., Fawole, O., Agbolade, O. M., Ayinde, O. O., Amosu, A. M., Atuloma, N. O. S., Odula, O., Owodunni, B. M., Rebecca, S. N. and Falade, M. (2010) Onchocerciasis among inhabitants of Ibarapa Local Government community of Oyo State, Nigeria. Biomedical Research, 21(2): 174-178.
Akogun, O. B., Onwuliri, C. O. (1991). Hyperendemic onchocerciasis in Taraba River Valley of Gongola State (old Adamawa province), Nigeria. Annals of Parasitology and Human Comparative, 6(1): 22-26.
Anderson, J., Fuglsang, H., Hamilton, P. J. and De Marshall, T. F. (1974). Studies on onchocerciasis in the united Cameroon Republic In: Comparison of population with and without Onchocerca volvulus. Transaction of the Royal Society of Tropical medicine and Hygiene, 68:190 - 208.
Boatin, B. A., Toe L., Alley, E. S., Dembele, N., Weiss, N. and Dadzie, K. Y. (1998). Diagnostics in Onchocerciasis: Future challenges. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 92(1): 41 - 45.
Bump, J. B, Benton, B., Seketeli, A., Liese, B. H. (2004). West Africa: Defeating river blindness - Success in scaling up and lessons learned. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 4: A24.
Busari, L. O., Adeleke, M. A., Surakat, O. A, Akindele, A. A., Fasasi, K. A. and Ojurongbe, O. (2022). Black flies and Onchocerciasis: Knowledge, attitude and practices among inhabitants of Alabameta, Osun State, Southwestern, Nigeria. PLOS Neglected Tropical Disease, 16(4): e0010320. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0010320.
Blackfly images, 2025. https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publichealth/insects/blackfly.htm accessed 28 May, 2025
Chikezie, F. M. Ezihe E. K., Uzoigwe, N. R., Opara, K. N., Igbe, M. A., Okonkwo, N. J., Nwankwo, E. N. and Nwoke, B. E. B. (2015). A concise entomological evaluation of onchocerciasis transmission in Ahani-achi community in Oji-river Local Government area of Enugu State, Nigeria. International Journal of Current Research and Review, 7(5): 56 62.
Chikezie, F. M., Opara, K. N., Ubulom, P. M. E., Yaro, C. A., Al Akeel, R. K., Osei Atweneboana, M. Y., Alexiou, A., Papadakis, M. and Batiha, G. E. (2023). Onchocerciasis transmission status in some endemic communities of Cross River State, Nigeria after two decades of mass drug administration with ivermectin. Scientifc Reports, 13: 5413. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31446-6
Cotton, J. A, Bennuru, S., Grote, A., Harsha, B., Tracy, A., Beech, R., Stephen, R. D., Matthew D., Julie, C. D. H., Nancy, H., Taisei, K., Olivia, L., Amruta, M., Prudence, M., Nirvana, N., Jose, M. C. R., Matthew, B. R., Eleanor, S., Lakshmipuram, S. S., Isheng, J. T., Thomas, R. U., Denis, V., John, P., Thomas, B. N., Elodie, G., Matthew, B. and Sara, L. (2016). The genome of Onchocerca volvulus, the agent of river blindness. Nature and Microbiology, 2:16216. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.
Denis, L., Charles, R. K., Thomson, L., Peace, H., Edridah, M. T. and Thomas, R. U. (2017). Evaluation of Community-Directed Operation of Black Fly Traps for Entomological Surveillance of Onchocerca volvulus Transmission in the Madi-Mid North Focus of Onchocerciasis in Northern Uganda. American Journal Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 97(4): 1235 1242. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.17-0244.
Duke, O. (2017) Tourist Attraction Ohum (Awhum) waterfall and caves. www.pulse.ng. Accessed, 28/04/2025.
Dumas, V., Herder, S., Bebba, K., Cadoux Barnabe, C., Christian, B., Gearq, K. (1998). Polymorphic microsatellites in Simulium damnosum S.I. and their use for differentiating two savannah populations: Implications for epidemiological studies. Genome, 41: 154 61.
Eezzuilemoi, D. and Wilson, D. (2017). Onchocerciasis. E-medicine. www.emedicine.com . Accessed March 7, 2025.
Eneanya, C. I., Nwaorgu, O. C. (2001). Social and psychological aspects of onchocercal skin disease in Nkwelle-Ezunaka, Anambra State. Nigeria. Nigerian of Journal of Parasitology, 22:1116.
Enugu State Ministry of Health (ESMH). (2005). Integration of HIV/AIDS Prevention into Onchocerciasis Control, Programme in Aninri and Oji-River Local, Government Areas, Enugu State, Nigeria Using the Community Directed Approach of APOC. KAP Study Report African Programme for Onchocerciasis Contol Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/344073.
Eyo, J. E., Onyishi, G. C. and Ugokwe, C. U. (2013). Rapid Epidemiological Assessment of Onchocerciasis in a Tropical Semi-Urban Community, Enugu State, Nigeria. Iranian J Parasitol, 8(1): 145-151.
Federal Ministry of Health. (2017). River Blindness Elimination Programme. www.cartercenter.org. Accessed: March 7, 2019.
Hendy, A., Krit, M., Pfarr, K., Laemmer, C., De Witte, J., Nwane, P., Kamgno, J., Nana-Djeunga, H. C., Boussinesq, M., Dujardin, J., Post, R., Colebunders, R., ONeill, S., Enyong, P. and Njamnshi, A. K. (2021). Onchocerca volvulus transmission in the Mbam valley of Cameroon following 16 years of annual community-directed treatment with ivermectin, and the description of a new cytotype of Simulium squamosum. Parasites and Vectors, 14 (1): 563.
Hernandez-Triana, L. M, Prosser, S. W., Rodrguez-Prez, M. A., Chaverri, L. G, Hebert, P. D. N., Gregory, R. T. and Johnson, N. (2015). DNA barcoding Neotropical black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae): species identification and discovery of cryptic diversity in Mesoamerica. Zootaxa, 3936: 93-114.
Hernndez-Triana, L. M. (2007). Recommendations by The Natural History Museum on methods for collecting, preserving, rearing and mailing of simuliid specimens. http://blackflies.info/content/simuliidaecollecting-protocol.
Hernandez-Triana, L. M., de Oca, M. F., Prosser, S. W., Hebert, P. D., Gregory, R. T. and McMurtrie S. (2017). DNA barcoding as an aid for species identification in austral black flies (Insecta: Diptera: Simuliidae). Genome, 60: 348 57.
Ikani, O. R., Samuel, A. A., Joy, A. N., Onyekwelu, K. C., John, A. and Ogbonna, E. C. (2022). Molecular identification of Onchocerca species among residents of Benue and Cross River States, Nigeria, Using Known Microsatellites and Mitochondrial DNA. Annals of Tropical Pathology, 13: 23 - 8.
Ikpo, U., Mbanugo J., Anukwuorji, C. A. and Ugwuanyi, I. K. (2016). Study on the Prevalence of Onchocerca volvulus Infection among the Inhabitants of Awgu and Oji River Local Government Areas of Enugu State, Nigeria. International Journal of Tropical Disease and Health, 18(1): 1 - 9.
Iroha, I. R., Okonkwo, C. I., Ayogu, J. E., Orji, A. E. and Onwa, N. C. (2010). Epidemiology of human onchocerciasis among Famers in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Journal of Medicine and Medical Science, 2(8): 246 - 250.
Lipner, E. M., Dembele, N., Souleymane, S., Alley, W. S., Prevots, D. R., Toe, L., Boatin, B. , Weil, G. J. and Nutman, T. B . (2006). Field applicability of a rapid-format anti-Ov-16 antibody test for the assessment of onchocerciasis control measures in regions of endemicity. Journal Infectious Diseases, 194(2): 16 - 21.
Marie, H. (2010). Onchocerciasis. www.dermactnz.org. Accessed, 22/03/2017.
Mose, A. D., Mamo, B. T. and Alamirew, S. Y. (2020). Monthly dynamics and biting behavior of principal onchocerciasis vector (Simulium damnosum s.l.) in endemic area of Southwest Ethiopia. International Journal of One Health, 6(1): 2327
Noma, M., Zoure, H. G. and Tekle, A. H. (2014). The geographic distribution of onchocerciasis in the 20 participating countries of the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control in priority areas for ivermectin treatment. Parasites and Vectors, 7: 325 https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-7-325 PMID: 25053266.
Nwoke, B. E. B., Shiwaku, K. and Takahashi, H. (1991). Nigerian Onchocerciasis: Epidemiological perceptive. Journal of Tropical Medicine Hygiene, 19 (2): 191 - 201.
Nwoke, B. E. D. (1992). Onchocerciasis in Plateau State, Nigeria. ecological background, local disease perception, treatment and vector/parasite dynamics. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiolgy, Microbiology and Immunology, 36(2): 158 - 60.
Nwoke, B. E. D., Onwuliri, C. O. E., Iwuala, M. O. E., Ufomadu, G. O. and Takahashi, H. (1987). Studies on the field epidemiology of human onchocerciasis on the Jos Plateau, Nigeria. IV clinical manifestations, socioeconomic importance and local disease perception and treatment. Proceedings of Nigeria Japan joint International Conference.
Nworie, O., Ukpabi, N. N., Oli, A. N., Okonkwo, C. I., Okoli, C. S. and Ejiofor, O. S. (2014). The Prevalence and Distribution of Human Onchocerciasis in Two Senatorial Districts in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, 2(2): 39 - 44.
Okafor, O., Uzoka, N. G., Ajunwa, L. O., Chikezie, I. C., Iyam, O. I. and Dalla, V. C. (2016). Prevalence, Knowledge, Attitude and Practices associated with Onchocerciasis in Enugu East and Nkanu West Local Government Areas of Enugu State, Nigeria. Animal Research International, 13(1): 2345 - 2351.
Okoye, I. C. and Onwuliri, C. O. E. (1997). Some aspect of the current status of onchocerciasis in Hawel River valley after four cycles of mectizan therapy. Journal of Applied Science and Management, 1(1): 64 - 8.
Onwuliri, C. O. E., Nwoke, B. E. B., Lawal, I. A. and Iwuala, M. O. E. (1987). Onchocerciasis in Plateau State of Nigeria. II. The prevalence among residents around the Assob River Area. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitolology, 81: 49-52.
Opara, K. N., Fagbemi, B. O., Ekwe, A. and Okenu, D. M. N. (2005). Status of forest onchocerciasis in the lower Cross River basin, Nigeria Entomologic profile after five years of ivermectin intervention. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 73(2): 371 376.
Ottensen, E. A. (1984). Immunological aspect of lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis in man. Transaction of the Royal Society of Tropical medicine and Hygiene, 9: 18.
Pryce, J., Unnasch, T. R. and Reimer, L. J (2021). Evaluating the diagnostic test accuracy of molecular xenomonitoring methods for characterising the community burden of Onchocerciasis. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 15(10): e0009812. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009812
Pukuma M. S., Lucky D. and Qadeer M. A (2023). Evaluation of the impact of ivermectin on the prevalence of microfilaria after 20 years ivermectin distribution in some local government areas of Adamawa state Nigeria. FUDMA Journal of Sciences, 7(4): 139 - 146
Rodrguez-Perez, M. A., Unnasch, T. R. and Real-Najarro, O. (2011). Assessment and monitoring of onchocerciasis in Latin America. Advances in parasitology, 77: 175 226. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-391429-300008-3 PMID: 22137585.
Schmidt, C. A., Cromwell, E, A., Hill, E., Donkers, K. M., Schipp, M. F., Johnson. K. B. and Pigott D. M. (2022). LBD 2019 Neglected Tropical Diseases Collaborators & Simon I. Hay . The prevalence of onchocerciasis in Africa and Yemen, 20002018: a geospatial analysis. BMC Medicine, 20:293. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-022-02486-y.
Service, M. W. (1977). Methods for sampling adult Simuliidae, with special reference to the Simulium damnosum complex. London: Centre for Overseas Pest Research; 48 pp.
Usifo, M. A. (2018). The Magical Awhum Water fall. www.afrotourism.com, Accessed: 23/06/2018.
Uzoigwe, N. R, Ajayi, J. A. A., Anyanwu, G. I. and Onyeka, J. O. A. (2012). Change in prevalence of parasite intensity following Ivermectin therapy against river blindness in wowen community of Nasarawa State, Central Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology. 33(2): 157 - 61.
Wanji, S., Wanji, S., Kengne-Ouafo, J. A., Esum, M. E., Chounna, P. W. N., Tendongfor, N. Adzemye, B. F., Eyong, J. E. E., Jato. I., Datchoua-Poutcheu, F. R., Kah, E., Enyong, P. and Taylor, D. W . (2015). Situation analysis of parasitological and entomological indices of onchocerciasis transmission in three drainage basins of the rain forest of South West Cameroon after a decade of ivermectin treatment. Parasites and Vectors 8, 202. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-015-0817-2 .
Weil, G. J., Steel, C., Liftis, F., Li, B. W., Mearns, G., Lobos, E. (2000). A rapid-format antibody card test for diagnosis of onchocerciasis. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 182(6):1796 - 1799.
World Health Organisation. (2017). Prevention of blindness and visual impairment. www.who.net. Accessed 20/08/2019.
World Health Organization. (2015). Onchocerciasis; Fact Sheet. www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs374/en/ . Assessed, April 4, 2015.
World Health Organization. (2016). Guidelines for stopping mass drug administration and verifying elimination of human onchocerciasis: criteria and procedures: World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241510011.
World Health Organization. (2022). Onchocerciasis - River blindness. Fact Sheet. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/onchocerciasis.
Akogun, O. B., Onwuliri, C. O. (1991). Hyperendemic onchocerciasis in Taraba River Valley of Gongola State (old Adamawa province), Nigeria. Annals of Parasitology and Human Comparative, 6(1): 22-26.
Anderson, J., Fuglsang, H., Hamilton, P. J. and De Marshall, T. F. (1974). Studies on onchocerciasis in the united Cameroon Republic In: Comparison of population with and without Onchocerca volvulus. Transaction of the Royal Society of Tropical medicine and Hygiene, 68:190 - 208.
Boatin, B. A., Toe L., Alley, E. S., Dembele, N., Weiss, N. and Dadzie, K. Y. (1998). Diagnostics in Onchocerciasis: Future challenges. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 92(1): 41 - 45.
Bump, J. B, Benton, B., Seketeli, A., Liese, B. H. (2004). West Africa: Defeating river blindness - Success in scaling up and lessons learned. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 4: A24.
Busari, L. O., Adeleke, M. A., Surakat, O. A, Akindele, A. A., Fasasi, K. A. and Ojurongbe, O. (2022). Black flies and Onchocerciasis: Knowledge, attitude and practices among inhabitants of Alabameta, Osun State, Southwestern, Nigeria. PLOS Neglected Tropical Disease, 16(4): e0010320. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0010320.
Blackfly images, 2025. https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publichealth/insects/blackfly.htm accessed 28 May, 2025
Chikezie, F. M. Ezihe E. K., Uzoigwe, N. R., Opara, K. N., Igbe, M. A., Okonkwo, N. J., Nwankwo, E. N. and Nwoke, B. E. B. (2015). A concise entomological evaluation of onchocerciasis transmission in Ahani-achi community in Oji-river Local Government area of Enugu State, Nigeria. International Journal of Current Research and Review, 7(5): 56 62.
Chikezie, F. M., Opara, K. N., Ubulom, P. M. E., Yaro, C. A., Al Akeel, R. K., Osei Atweneboana, M. Y., Alexiou, A., Papadakis, M. and Batiha, G. E. (2023). Onchocerciasis transmission status in some endemic communities of Cross River State, Nigeria after two decades of mass drug administration with ivermectin. Scientifc Reports, 13: 5413. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31446-6
Cotton, J. A, Bennuru, S., Grote, A., Harsha, B., Tracy, A., Beech, R., Stephen, R. D., Matthew D., Julie, C. D. H., Nancy, H., Taisei, K., Olivia, L., Amruta, M., Prudence, M., Nirvana, N., Jose, M. C. R., Matthew, B. R., Eleanor, S., Lakshmipuram, S. S., Isheng, J. T., Thomas, R. U., Denis, V., John, P., Thomas, B. N., Elodie, G., Matthew, B. and Sara, L. (2016). The genome of Onchocerca volvulus, the agent of river blindness. Nature and Microbiology, 2:16216. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.
Denis, L., Charles, R. K., Thomson, L., Peace, H., Edridah, M. T. and Thomas, R. U. (2017). Evaluation of Community-Directed Operation of Black Fly Traps for Entomological Surveillance of Onchocerca volvulus Transmission in the Madi-Mid North Focus of Onchocerciasis in Northern Uganda. American Journal Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 97(4): 1235 1242. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.17-0244.
Duke, O. (2017) Tourist Attraction Ohum (Awhum) waterfall and caves. www.pulse.ng. Accessed, 28/04/2025.
Dumas, V., Herder, S., Bebba, K., Cadoux Barnabe, C., Christian, B., Gearq, K. (1998). Polymorphic microsatellites in Simulium damnosum S.I. and their use for differentiating two savannah populations: Implications for epidemiological studies. Genome, 41: 154 61.
Eezzuilemoi, D. and Wilson, D. (2017). Onchocerciasis. E-medicine. www.emedicine.com . Accessed March 7, 2025.
Eneanya, C. I., Nwaorgu, O. C. (2001). Social and psychological aspects of onchocercal skin disease in Nkwelle-Ezunaka, Anambra State. Nigeria. Nigerian of Journal of Parasitology, 22:1116.
Enugu State Ministry of Health (ESMH). (2005). Integration of HIV/AIDS Prevention into Onchocerciasis Control, Programme in Aninri and Oji-River Local, Government Areas, Enugu State, Nigeria Using the Community Directed Approach of APOC. KAP Study Report African Programme for Onchocerciasis Contol Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/344073.
Eyo, J. E., Onyishi, G. C. and Ugokwe, C. U. (2013). Rapid Epidemiological Assessment of Onchocerciasis in a Tropical Semi-Urban Community, Enugu State, Nigeria. Iranian J Parasitol, 8(1): 145-151.
Federal Ministry of Health. (2017). River Blindness Elimination Programme. www.cartercenter.org. Accessed: March 7, 2019.
Hendy, A., Krit, M., Pfarr, K., Laemmer, C., De Witte, J., Nwane, P., Kamgno, J., Nana-Djeunga, H. C., Boussinesq, M., Dujardin, J., Post, R., Colebunders, R., ONeill, S., Enyong, P. and Njamnshi, A. K. (2021). Onchocerca volvulus transmission in the Mbam valley of Cameroon following 16 years of annual community-directed treatment with ivermectin, and the description of a new cytotype of Simulium squamosum. Parasites and Vectors, 14 (1): 563.
Hernandez-Triana, L. M, Prosser, S. W., Rodrguez-Prez, M. A., Chaverri, L. G, Hebert, P. D. N., Gregory, R. T. and Johnson, N. (2015). DNA barcoding Neotropical black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae): species identification and discovery of cryptic diversity in Mesoamerica. Zootaxa, 3936: 93-114.
Hernndez-Triana, L. M. (2007). Recommendations by The Natural History Museum on methods for collecting, preserving, rearing and mailing of simuliid specimens. http://blackflies.info/content/simuliidaecollecting-protocol.
Hernandez-Triana, L. M., de Oca, M. F., Prosser, S. W., Hebert, P. D., Gregory, R. T. and McMurtrie S. (2017). DNA barcoding as an aid for species identification in austral black flies (Insecta: Diptera: Simuliidae). Genome, 60: 348 57.
Ikani, O. R., Samuel, A. A., Joy, A. N., Onyekwelu, K. C., John, A. and Ogbonna, E. C. (2022). Molecular identification of Onchocerca species among residents of Benue and Cross River States, Nigeria, Using Known Microsatellites and Mitochondrial DNA. Annals of Tropical Pathology, 13: 23 - 8.
Ikpo, U., Mbanugo J., Anukwuorji, C. A. and Ugwuanyi, I. K. (2016). Study on the Prevalence of Onchocerca volvulus Infection among the Inhabitants of Awgu and Oji River Local Government Areas of Enugu State, Nigeria. International Journal of Tropical Disease and Health, 18(1): 1 - 9.
Iroha, I. R., Okonkwo, C. I., Ayogu, J. E., Orji, A. E. and Onwa, N. C. (2010). Epidemiology of human onchocerciasis among Famers in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Journal of Medicine and Medical Science, 2(8): 246 - 250.
Lipner, E. M., Dembele, N., Souleymane, S., Alley, W. S., Prevots, D. R., Toe, L., Boatin, B. , Weil, G. J. and Nutman, T. B . (2006). Field applicability of a rapid-format anti-Ov-16 antibody test for the assessment of onchocerciasis control measures in regions of endemicity. Journal Infectious Diseases, 194(2): 16 - 21.
Marie, H. (2010). Onchocerciasis. www.dermactnz.org. Accessed, 22/03/2017.
Mose, A. D., Mamo, B. T. and Alamirew, S. Y. (2020). Monthly dynamics and biting behavior of principal onchocerciasis vector (Simulium damnosum s.l.) in endemic area of Southwest Ethiopia. International Journal of One Health, 6(1): 2327
Noma, M., Zoure, H. G. and Tekle, A. H. (2014). The geographic distribution of onchocerciasis in the 20 participating countries of the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control in priority areas for ivermectin treatment. Parasites and Vectors, 7: 325 https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-7-325 PMID: 25053266.
Nwoke, B. E. B., Shiwaku, K. and Takahashi, H. (1991). Nigerian Onchocerciasis: Epidemiological perceptive. Journal of Tropical Medicine Hygiene, 19 (2): 191 - 201.
Nwoke, B. E. D. (1992). Onchocerciasis in Plateau State, Nigeria. ecological background, local disease perception, treatment and vector/parasite dynamics. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiolgy, Microbiology and Immunology, 36(2): 158 - 60.
Nwoke, B. E. D., Onwuliri, C. O. E., Iwuala, M. O. E., Ufomadu, G. O. and Takahashi, H. (1987). Studies on the field epidemiology of human onchocerciasis on the Jos Plateau, Nigeria. IV clinical manifestations, socioeconomic importance and local disease perception and treatment. Proceedings of Nigeria Japan joint International Conference.
Nworie, O., Ukpabi, N. N., Oli, A. N., Okonkwo, C. I., Okoli, C. S. and Ejiofor, O. S. (2014). The Prevalence and Distribution of Human Onchocerciasis in Two Senatorial Districts in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, 2(2): 39 - 44.
Okafor, O., Uzoka, N. G., Ajunwa, L. O., Chikezie, I. C., Iyam, O. I. and Dalla, V. C. (2016). Prevalence, Knowledge, Attitude and Practices associated with Onchocerciasis in Enugu East and Nkanu West Local Government Areas of Enugu State, Nigeria. Animal Research International, 13(1): 2345 - 2351.
Okoye, I. C. and Onwuliri, C. O. E. (1997). Some aspect of the current status of onchocerciasis in Hawel River valley after four cycles of mectizan therapy. Journal of Applied Science and Management, 1(1): 64 - 8.
Onwuliri, C. O. E., Nwoke, B. E. B., Lawal, I. A. and Iwuala, M. O. E. (1987). Onchocerciasis in Plateau State of Nigeria. II. The prevalence among residents around the Assob River Area. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitolology, 81: 49-52.
Opara, K. N., Fagbemi, B. O., Ekwe, A. and Okenu, D. M. N. (2005). Status of forest onchocerciasis in the lower Cross River basin, Nigeria Entomologic profile after five years of ivermectin intervention. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 73(2): 371 376.
Ottensen, E. A. (1984). Immunological aspect of lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis in man. Transaction of the Royal Society of Tropical medicine and Hygiene, 9: 18.
Pryce, J., Unnasch, T. R. and Reimer, L. J (2021). Evaluating the diagnostic test accuracy of molecular xenomonitoring methods for characterising the community burden of Onchocerciasis. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 15(10): e0009812. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009812
Pukuma M. S., Lucky D. and Qadeer M. A (2023). Evaluation of the impact of ivermectin on the prevalence of microfilaria after 20 years ivermectin distribution in some local government areas of Adamawa state Nigeria. FUDMA Journal of Sciences, 7(4): 139 - 146
Rodrguez-Perez, M. A., Unnasch, T. R. and Real-Najarro, O. (2011). Assessment and monitoring of onchocerciasis in Latin America. Advances in parasitology, 77: 175 226. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-391429-300008-3 PMID: 22137585.
Schmidt, C. A., Cromwell, E, A., Hill, E., Donkers, K. M., Schipp, M. F., Johnson. K. B. and Pigott D. M. (2022). LBD 2019 Neglected Tropical Diseases Collaborators & Simon I. Hay . The prevalence of onchocerciasis in Africa and Yemen, 20002018: a geospatial analysis. BMC Medicine, 20:293. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-022-02486-y.
Service, M. W. (1977). Methods for sampling adult Simuliidae, with special reference to the Simulium damnosum complex. London: Centre for Overseas Pest Research; 48 pp.
Usifo, M. A. (2018). The Magical Awhum Water fall. www.afrotourism.com, Accessed: 23/06/2018.
Uzoigwe, N. R, Ajayi, J. A. A., Anyanwu, G. I. and Onyeka, J. O. A. (2012). Change in prevalence of parasite intensity following Ivermectin therapy against river blindness in wowen community of Nasarawa State, Central Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology. 33(2): 157 - 61.
Wanji, S., Wanji, S., Kengne-Ouafo, J. A., Esum, M. E., Chounna, P. W. N., Tendongfor, N. Adzemye, B. F., Eyong, J. E. E., Jato. I., Datchoua-Poutcheu, F. R., Kah, E., Enyong, P. and Taylor, D. W . (2015). Situation analysis of parasitological and entomological indices of onchocerciasis transmission in three drainage basins of the rain forest of South West Cameroon after a decade of ivermectin treatment. Parasites and Vectors 8, 202. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-015-0817-2 .
Weil, G. J., Steel, C., Liftis, F., Li, B. W., Mearns, G., Lobos, E. (2000). A rapid-format antibody card test for diagnosis of onchocerciasis. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 182(6):1796 - 1799.
World Health Organisation. (2017). Prevention of blindness and visual impairment. www.who.net. Accessed 20/08/2019.
World Health Organization. (2015). Onchocerciasis; Fact Sheet. www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs374/en/ . Assessed, April 4, 2015.
World Health Organization. (2016). Guidelines for stopping mass drug administration and verifying elimination of human onchocerciasis: criteria and procedures: World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241510011.
World Health Organization. (2022). Onchocerciasis - River blindness. Fact Sheet. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/onchocerciasis.
Published
2025-05-31
How to Cite
Uzoka, N. B., Chikezie, C. I., Dalla, C. V., Monday-Chukwu, O., Iyam, O. I., Onwe, D. A., Machina, I. B., Edeh, G. C., Onyebuchi, F., Maduforo, A. S., Awam, C. O., & Ani, N. M. (2025). ASSESSMENT OF THE PRESENCE OF SIMULIUM SPP BLACKFLIES AND ONCHOCERCIASIS IN SELECTED COMMUNITIES AROUND AWHUM WATERFALLS, A TOURIST SITE IN UDI LGA OF ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA. FUDMA JOURNAL OF SCIENCES, 9(5), 362 - 368. https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2025-0905-3651
Issue
Section
Research Articles
FUDMA Journal of Sciences
