A REVIEW ON CARBOFURAN IN THE ENVIRONMENT: PERSISTENCE, TOXICOLOGICAL IMPACTS AND MICROBIAL BIOREMEDIATION STRATEGIES
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2026-1002-4485Keywords:
Carbofuran, Biodegradation, Insecticide, Organocarbamate, Catabolic genesAbstract
Carbofuran is one of the most toxic broad-spectrum and systemic N-methyl carbamate pesticide, which is extensively applied as insecticide, nematicide and acaricide for agricultural, domestic and industrial purposes. It is extremely lethal to mammals, birds, fish and wildlife due to its anticholinesterase activity, which inhibits acetyl-cholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterse activity. In humans, carbofuran is associated with endocrine disrupting activity, reproductive disorders, cytotoxic and genotoxic abnormalities. Therefore, cleanup of carbofuran-contaminated environments is of utmost concern and urgently needs an adequate, advanced and effective remedial technology. Several conventional technologies are used for the removal of carbofuran including physicochemical processing like photo-catalysis, ozonation/UV-irradiation, membrane filtration, adsorption and fenton degradation. However, none of these technologies is feasible and cost effective for complete mineralization of carbofuran pollution from the environment. Microbial technology is a very potent, pragmatic and ecofriendly approach for the removal of carbofuran. Microbial carbofuran degradation provides a safe and cheaper alternative compared to chemical and physical methods. Microbial enzymes and their catabolic genes exhibit an exceptional potential for bioremediation strategies. This study aimed to review the microbial pathways of the biodegradation of carbofuran in agricultural soil to sustainable mitigation of environmental and human health risk. To conduct this review, databases such as Scopus, web of science, PubMed and google scholar were searched to extract studies on the carbofuran biodegradation methods from 2010 to 2025. The role of the isolated bacteria as degrader of carbofuran make it an important instrument for biodegradation of pollutants for sustainable agricultural practices.
References
Abatenh, E., Gizaw, B., Tsegaye, Z., and Wassie, M. (2017). The Role of Microorganisms in Bioremediation – A Review. Open Journal of Environmental Biology, 2(1), 38–046.
Ahmad, S., Ahmad, H. W., and Bhatt, P. (2022). Microbial adaptation and impact into the pesticide’s degradation. Archives of Microbiology, 204(5), 288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00203-022-02899-6
Alhassan, A. Y., Babandi, A., Uba, G., and Yakasai, H. M. (2020). Isolation and Characterization of Molybdenum-reducing Pseudomonas sp. from Agricultural Land in Northwest-Nigeria. Journal of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology, 8(1), 23–28. https://doi.org/10.54987/jobimb.v8i1.505
Anjum, M. M., Ali, N., and Iqbal, S. (2017). Pesticides and environmental health: A review. Toxicology and Environmental Chemistry, 5, 555–571.
Ariffin, F., and Rahman, S. A. (2020). Biodegradation of Carbofuran; A Review. Journal of Environmental Microbiology and Toxicology, 8(1), 50–57. https://doi.org/10.54987/jemat.v8i1.523
Ataikiru, T. L., and Odesiri-Eruteyan, E. A. (2021). Bacterial Growth Abilities in Carbofuran and Paraquat. Microbiology Research Journal International, 31(11), 26–37. https://doi.org/10.9734/mrji/2021/v31i1130356
Ataikiru, T. L., Okerentugba, P. O., and Okpokwasili, G. C. (2020). Identification of Carbofuran and Paraquat Degrading Microorganisms from Soil. South Asian Journal of Research in Microbiology, 40–52. https://doi.org/10.9734/sajrm/2020/v7i130164
Ataikiru, T. L. A., and Ajuzieogu, C. A. (2023). Enhanced bioremediation of pesticides contaminated soil using organic (compost) and inorganic (NPK) fertilizers. Heliyon, 9(12), e23133.
Baharudin, N. S., Ahmad, H., and Hossain, M. S. (2024). Understanding the Degradation of Carbofuran in Agricultural Area: A Review of Fate, Metabolites, and Toxicity. Pertanika Journal of Science and Technology, 32(1), 285–322. https://doi.org/10.47836/pjst.32.1.17
Bencko, V., and Foong, F. Y. L. (2017). The history of arsenical pesticides and health risks related to the use of Agent Blue. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 24(2), 312–316. https://doi.org/10.26444/AAEM/74715
Cheng, M., Chen, D., Parales, R. E., and Jiang, J. (2022). Oxygenases as Powerful Weapons in the Microbial Degradation of Pesticides. Annual Review of Microbiology, 76, 325–348. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-micro-041320-091758
Chowdhury, A. Z., Jahan, S. A., Islam, M. N., Moniruzzaman, M., Alam, M. K., Zaman, M. A., Karim, N., and Gan, S. H. (2012). Occurrence of organophosphorus and carbamate pesticide residues in surface water samples from the Rangpur district of Bangladesh. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 89(1), 202–207.
Clasen, B., Leitemperger, J., Murussi, C., Pretto, A., Menezes, C., Dalabona, F., Marchezan, E., Adaime, M. B., Zanella, R., and Loro, V. L. (2014). Carbofuran promotes biochemical changes in carp exposed to rice field and laboratory conditions. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 101(1), 77–82.
da Luz, D. S., Guimarães, P. S., Castro, M. S., Primel, E. G., Giroldo, D., and Martins, C. de M. G. (2024). Effects of the Pesticide Carbofuran on Two Species of Chlorophyceae (Desmodesmus communis and Pseudopediastrum boryanum) and Their Pesticide Bioremediation Ability. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 43(4), 926–937.
Degradadoras, B., Obtenidas, C., Cultivo, S. B., Historia, D., Jos, P., Rozo, C., Uribe, D., Chac, L. M., Marina, L., and Mu, M. (2013). Characterization of Carbofuran Degrading Bacteria Obtained from Potato Cultivated Soils with Different Pesticide Application Records / Caracterización de Bacterias Degradadoras de Carbofuran Obtenidas de Suelos Bajo Cultivo de Papa y con Diferente Histor. Revista Facultad Nacional de Agronomía Medellín, 66(1), 6899–6908.
Dias, E., Costa, F. G., Morais, S., and De Lourdes-Pereira, M. (2015). A review on the assessment of the potential adverse health impacts of carbamate pesticides. Topics in Public Health, 197–212.
Donovan, S., Taggart, M., and Richards, N. (2011). An Overview of the Chemistry, Manufacture, Environmental Fate and Detection of Carbofuran. In Carbofuran and Wildlife Poisoning (Vol. 1, pp. 1–18). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119998532.ch1
Duc, H. D. (2022). Enhancement of carbofuran degradation by immobilized Bacillus sp. strain DT1. Environmental Engineering Research, 27(4). https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2021.158
Dutra, B. K., Fernandes, F. A., and Oliveira, G. T. (2008). Carbofuran-induced alterations in biochemical composition, lipoperoxidation, and Na+/K+ ATPase activity of Hyalella pleoacuta and Hyalella curvispina in bioassays. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology and Pharmacology, 147(2), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CBPC.2007.09.004
Fareed, A., Zaffar, H., Rashid, A., Maroof Shah, M., and Naqvi, T. A. (2017). Biodegradation of N-methylated carbamates by free and immobilized cells of newly isolated strain Enterobacter cloacae strain TA7. Bioremediation Journal, 21(3–4), 119–127.
Fenoll, J., Hellín, P., Flores, P., Martínez, C. M., and Navarro, S. (2013). Degradation intermediates and reaction pathway of carbofuran in leaching water using TiO2 and ZnO as photocatalyst under natural sunlight. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, 251(2), 33–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2012.10.012
Fukuto, T. R. (1990). Mechanism of action of organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides. Environmental Health Perspectives, 87, 245–254.
Garud, A., Pawar, S., Patil, M. S., Kale, S. R., and Patil, S. (2024). A Scientific Review of Pesticides: Classification, Toxicity, Health Effects, Sustainability, and Environmental Impact. Cureus, 16(10), e67945. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.67945
Getenga, Z. M., Mogusu, E. O., Ngige, A. N., Kimosop, S. J., Mutua, G. K., Kengara, F., Reiner, S., and Ulrike, D. (2023). A review of the enhanced degradation of pesticides in tropical agricultural soils. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science, 19(1), 9–17.
Guerrero Ramírez, J. R., Ibarra Muñoz, L. A., Balagurusamy, N., Frías Ramírez, J. E., Alfaro Hernández, L., and Carrillo Campos, J. (2023). Microbiology and Biochemistry of Pesticides Biodegradation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(21), 15969.
Gupta, C. (2025). Carbofuran toxicity. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 43(4), 383–418.
Hossain, A., Rahman, R., Jahan, N., Akhter, H., and Begum, A. (2023). Prevalence and Identification of Carbofuran Degrading Bacteria from Agricultural Fields and Associated Water Bodies. Bangladesh Journal of Microbiology, 39(2), 68–74.
Ibrahim, S., Shukor, M. Y., Khalil, K. A., Halmi, M. I. E., Syed, M. A., and Ahmad, S. A. (2015). Application of response surface methodology for optimising caffeine-degrading parameters by Leifsonia sp. strain SIU. Journal of Environmental Biology, 36(5), 1215–1221.
Ibrahim, K. E. A., and Şolpan, D. (2019). Removal of carbofuran in aqueous solution by using UV-irradiation/hydrogen peroxide. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 7(1), 102820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2018.102820
Ibrahim, S., Shukor, M. Y., Syed, M. A., Ab Rahman, N. A., Khalil, K. A., Khalid, A., and Ahmad, S. A. (2014). Bacterial degradation of caffeine: a review. Asian Journal of Plant Biology, 2(1), 19–28.
Ibrahim, S., Shukor, M. Y., Syed, M. A., Wan Johari, W. L., and Ahmad, S. A. (2016a). Characterisation and growth kinetics studies of caffeine-degrading bacterium Leifsonia sp. strain SIU. Annals of Microbiology, 66(1), 289–298.
Ibrahim, S., Shukor, M. Y., Syed, M. A., Johari, W. L. W., Shamaan, N. A., Sabullah, M. K., and Ahmad, S. A. (2016b). Enhanced caffeine degradation by immobilised cells of Leifsonia sp. strain SIU. Journal of General and Applied Microbiology, 62, 18–24.
Ibrahim, S., Muhammad, A., Tanko, A. S., Abubakar, A., Ibrahim, H., Shukor, M. Y., and Ahmad, S. A. (2016c). Studies of action of heavy metals on caffeine degradation by immobilised Leifsonia sp. strain SIU. Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 8, 138–144.
Ibrahim, S., Zahri, K. N. M., Convey, P., Khalil, K. A., Gomez-Fuentes, C., Zulkarnain, A., Alias, S. A., González-Rocha, G., and Ahmad, S. A. (2020). Optimisation of biodegradation conditions for waste canola oil by cold-adapted Rhodococcus sp. AQ5-07 from Antarctica. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology, 48, 1–12.
Jahan, N., Hossain, A., Rahman, R., Akhter, H., and Begum, A. (2025). Optimizing conditions for carbofuran degrading isolates: a pathway to sustainable bioremediation in agricultural settings. Bioremediation Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/10889868.2024.2447948
Jain, U., Saxena, K., Hooda, V., Balayan, S., Singh, A. P., Tikadar, M., and Chauhan, N. (2022). Emerging vistas on pesticides detection based on electrochemical biosensors – An update. Food Chemistry, 371, 131126. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2021.131126
Jeschke, P. (2024). Recent developments in fluorine-containing pesticides. Pest Management Science, 80(7), 3065–3087. https://doi.org/10.1002/PS.7921
Kaur, P., and Balomajumder, C. (2019). Simultaneous biodegradation of mixture of carbamates by newly isolated Ascochyta sp. CBS 237.37. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 169(1), 590–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.11.029
Kim, H., Kim, D. U., Lee, H., Yun, J., and Ka, J. O. (2017). Syntrophic biodegradation of propoxur by Pseudaminobacter sp. SP1a and Nocardioides sp. SP1b isolated from agricultural soil. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 118, 1–9.
Krishna, K. R., and Philip, L. (2008). Biodegradation of lindane, methyl parathion and carbofuran by various enriched bacterial isolates. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 43(2), 157–171.
Kumar, A., Saxena, P., and Kisku, G. C. (2024). Recent advancements in environmental biodegradation of organochlorine pesticides: a review. Environmental Sustainability, 7(4), 461–476.
Kumar, S., Kaushik, G., Dar, M. A., Nimesh, S., López-Chuken, U. J., and Villarreal-Chiu, J. F. (2018). Microbial degradation of organophosphate pesticides: A review. Pedosphere, 28(2), 190–208.
Larson, S. J., Capel, P. D., and Majewski, M. S. (2019). Pesticides in Surface Waters: Distribution, Trends, and Governing Factors. In Pesticides in Surface Waters (pp. 392). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429062797
Lee-Ann Ataikiru, T., and Ajuzieogu, C. A. (2023). Enhanced bioremediation of pesticides contaminated soil using organic (compost) and inorganic (NPK) fertilizers. Heliyon, 9(12), e23133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23133
Leung, K. T., Jiang, Z. H., Almzene, N., Nandakumar, K., Sreekumari, K., and Trevors, J. T. (2019). Biodegradation and bioremediation of organic pollutants in soil. In Modern Soil Microbiology, Third Edition (pp. 381–402). CRC Press.
Li, Z., Wang, X., Ni, Z., Bao, J., and Zhang, H. (2020). In-situ remediation of carbofuran-contaminated soil by immobilized white-rot fungi. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 29(2), 1237–1243. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/102671
Lukman, K., Ibrahim, S., Muhammad, A., Babandi, A., Yakasai, H. M., Muhammad, J. B., and Jagaba, A. H. (2024). Bacillus sp. KS38 strain for sustainable caffeine degradation: Isolation, identification and optimization using response surface methodology. Desalination and Water Treatment, 320, 100628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100628
Lukman, K., Muhammad, A., Shehu, D., Babandi, A., Yakasai, H. M., and Ibrahim, S. (2023). Potential of microbial-decaffeination process: A review. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 27(9), 1915–1924.
Malhotra, H., Kaur, S., and Phale, P. S. (2021). Conserved metabolic and evolutionary themes in microbial degradation of carbamate pesticides. Frontiers in Microbiology, 12, 648868. https://doi.org/10.3389/FMICB.2021.648868
Meena, R. S., Kumar, S., Datta, R., Lal, R., Vijayakumar, V., Brtnicky, M., Sharma, M. P., Yadav, G. S., Jhariya, M. K., Jangir, C. K., Pathan, S. I., Dokulilova, T., Pecina, V., and Marfo, T. D. (2020). Impact of agrochemicals on soil microbiota and management: A review. Land, 9(2), 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/LAND9020034
Meka, W., and Dukessa, D. A. (2021). Environmental impact of pesticide and its adverse effect on human health: A narrative review. EC Pharmacology and Toxicology, 9, 45–54.
Miglani, R., and Bisht, S. S. (2020). World of earthworms with pesticides and insecticides. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 12(2), 71–82.
Mishra, S., Zhang, W., Lin, Z., Pang, S., Huang, Y., Bhatt, P., and Chen, S. (2020). Carbofuran toxicity and its microbial degradation in contaminated environments. Chemosphere, 259, 127419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127419
Moreira, R. A., da Silva Mansano, A., and Rocha, O. (2015). The toxicity of carbofuran to the freshwater rotifer, Philodina roseola. Ecotoxicology, 24(3), 604–615.
Mustapha, U., Halimoon, N., Wan Johari, W. L., and Abd Shukor, M. Y. (2020). Enhanced carbofuran degradation using immobilized and free cells of Enterobacter sp. isolated from soil. Molecules, 25(12), 2771.
Mustapha, M., Halimoon, N., Lutfi, W., Johari, W., Yunus, M., Shukor, A., Umar Mustapha, M., Johar, W., and Yunus, M. (2019). An overview on biodegradation of carbamate pesticides by soil bacteria. Pertanika Journal of Science and Technology, 27(2), 547–563.
Nabil, M., Abdel-Gawad, H., Elantabli, F. M., El-Medani, S. M., and Abdelhameed, R. M. (2023). Removal methods of pesticides and their improvement using metal-organic frameworks. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry, 66(13), 39–75.
Nag, M., Lahiri, D., Ghosh, S., Sarkar, T., Pati, S., Das, A. P., Ram, D. K., Bhattacharya, D., and Ray, R. R. (2024). Application of microorganisms in biotransformation and bioremediation of environmental contaminant: A review. Geomicrobiology Journal, 41(4), 374–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490451.2023.2261443
Nayak, S. K., Dash, B., and Baliyarsingh, B. (2018). Microbial remediation of persistent agro-chemicals by soil bacteria: An overview. In Microbial Biotechnology (Vol. 2, pp. 275–301). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7140-9_13
Nguyen, T. P. O., Helbling, D. E., Bers, K., Fida, T. T., Wattiez, R., Kohler, H. P. E., Springael, D., and De Mot, R. (2014). Genetic and metabolic analysis of the carbofuran catabolic pathway in Novosphingobium sp. KN65.2. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 98(19), 8235–8252. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00253-014-5858-5
Omolo, K. M., Magoma, G., Ngamau, K., and Muniru, T. (2012). Characterization of methomyl and carbofuran degrading-bacteria from soils of horticultural farms in Rift Valley and Central Kenya. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 6(2), 104–114. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajest11.067
Onunga, D. O., Kowino, I. O., Ngigi, A. N., Osogo, A., Orata, F., Getenga, Z. M., and Were, H. (2015). Biodegradation of carbofuran in soils within Nzoia River Basin, Kenya. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 50(6), 387–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2015.1011965
Otieno, P. O., Lalah, J. O., Virani, M., Jondiko, I. O., and Schramm, K. W. (2011). Carbofuran use and abuse in Kenya: Residues in soils, plants, water courses and the African white-backed vultures (Gyps africanus) found dead. Environmental Management, 31(4), 382–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10669-011-9350-9
Park, H., Seo, S. I., Lim, J. H., Song, J., Seo, J. H., and Kim, P. I. (2022). Screening of carbofuran-degrading bacteria Chryseobacterium sp. BSC2-3 and unveiling the change in metabolome during carbofuran degradation. Metabolites, 12(3), 219. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo12030219
Parte, S. G., Mohekar, A. D., and Kharat, A. S. (2017). Microbial degradation of pesticide: A review. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 11(24), 992–1012.
Patowary, R., Jain, P., Malakar, C., and Devi, A. (2023). Biodegradation of carbofuran by Pseudomonas aeruginosa S07: Biosurfactant production, plant growth promotion, and metal tolerance. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(54), 115185–115198.
Peng, X., Zhang, J. S., Li, Y. Y., Li, W., Xu, G. M., and Yan, Y. C. (2008). Biodegradation of insecticide carbofuran by Paracoccus sp. YM3. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 43(7), 588–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601230802234492
Rad, S. M., Ray, A. K., and Barghi, S. (2022). Water pollution and agriculture pesticide. Clean Technologies, 4(4), 1088–1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol4040066
Rahman, M. A., and Sabiha, S. (2018). Efficacy of carbofuran against pulse beetle Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) in black gram (Vigna mungo L.) seeds. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, 6(2), 2480–2486.
Randika, J. L. P. C., Bandara, P. K. G. S. S., Soysa, H. S. M., Ruwandeepika, H. A. D., and Gunatilake, S. K. (2022). Bioremediation of pesticide-contaminated soil: A review on indispensable role of soil bacteria. Journal of Agricultural Sciences (Sri Lanka), 17(1), 19–43.
Reddy, K., Jose, S., Fayaz, T., Renuka, N., Ratha, S. K., Kumari, S., and Bux, F. (2024). Microbe-assisted bioremediation of pesticides from contaminated habitats: Current status and prospects. In Bioremediation for Sustainable Environmental Cleanup (pp. 109–124). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003277941-7
Rezende-Teixeira, P., Dusi, R. G., Jimenez, P. C., Espindola, L. S., and Costa-Lotufo, L. V. (2022). What can we learn from commercial insecticides? Efficacy, toxicity, environmental impacts, and future developments. Environmental Pollution, 300, 118983. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2022.118983
Sethi, G., Saini, R., Banerjee, T., and Singh, N. (2024). Bioaugmentation: A strategy for enhanced degradation of pesticides in biobed. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 59(10), 654–662. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2024.2406132
Sharma, A., Kumar, V., Kohli, S. K., Kaur, R., Kaur, T., Arora, S., Thukral, A. K., and Bhardwaj, R. (2020). Pesticide metabolism in plants, insects, soil microbes and fishes: An overview. In Pesticides in Crop Production: Physiological and Biochemical Action (pp. 35–53). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119432241.ch3
Sharma, A., Kumar, V., Shahzad, B., Tanveer, M., Sidhu, G. P. S., Handa, N, Kohli, S. K., Yadav, P., Bali, A. S., Parihar, R. D., Dar, O. I., Singh, K., Jasrotia, S., Bakshi, P., Ramakrishnan, M., Kumar, S., Bhardwaj, R., and Thukral, A. K. (2019). Worldwide pesticide usage and its impacts on ecosystem. SN Applied Sciences, 1(11), 1446. https://doi.org/10.1007/S42452-019-1485-1/TABLES/4
Sidhu, G. K., Singh, S., Kumar, V., Dhanjal, D. S., Datta, S., and Singh, J. (2019). Toxicity, monitoring and biodegradation of organophosphate pesticides: A review. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 49(13), 1135–1187.
Singh, N., Rao, V. R., Sethunathan, N., Sahoo, A., and Misra, D. (1993). Synergistic interaction between two bacterial isolates in the degradation of carbofuran. Biodegradation, 4, 89–95.
Slaoui, M., Ouhssine, M., Berny, E., and Elyachioui, M. (2007). Biodegradation of the carbofuran by a fungus isolated from treated soil. African Journal of Biotechnology, 6(4), 419–423.
Stoyanova, K., Dincheva, I., Alexieva, Z., Peneva, N., and Gerginova, M. (2023). Biodegradation and utilization of the pesticides glyphosate and carbofuran by two yeast strains. Processes, 11(12), 3343. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11123343
Sun, S., Sidhu, V., Rong, Y., and Zheng, Y. (2018). Pesticide pollution in agricultural soils and sustainable remediation methods: A review. Current Pollution Reports, 4(3), 240–250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-018-0092-x
Thapa, R., Nainabasti, A., Lamsal, A., Malla, S., Thapa, B., Subedi, Y., and Ghimire, S. (2022). Pesticide persistence in agriculture and its hazardous effects on environmental components. International Journal of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology, 10(2), 75–83.
Tennakoon, D. A. S. S., Karunarathna, W. D. V., and Udugampala, U. S. S. (2013). Carbofuran concentrations in blood, bile and tissues in fatal cases of homicide and suicide. Forensic Science International, 227(1), 106–110.
Thongmee, A., and Sukplang, P. (2024). Identification of indigenous bacterial strains from Thai agricultural fields for potential bioremediation of carbofuran. Journal of Current Science and Technology, 14(3). https://doi.org/10.59796/jcst.V14N3.2024.74
Tondon, S. A., Deore, R., and Parab, A. (2018). Isolation, identification and the use of carbofuran degrading microorganisms for the removal of carbofuran pesticide from contaminated waters. Global Journal of Bio-Science and Biotechnology, 6(1), 89–95.
Verasoundarapandian, G., Lim, Z. S., Radziff, S. B. M., Taufik, S. H., Puasa, N. A., Shaharuddin, N. A., Merican, F., Wong, C. Y., Lalung, J., and Ahmad, S. A. (2022). Remediation of pesticides by microalgae as feasible approach in agriculture: Bibliometric strategies. Agronomy, 12(1), 117.
Wang, X., Li, Z., Yao, M., Bao, J., and Zhang, H. (2020). Degradation of carbofuran in contaminated soil by plant-microorganism combined technology. Journal of the Serbian Chemical Society, 85(1), 111–123. https://doi.org/10.2298/JSC190301052L
Wang, Y. S., Huang, Y. J., Chen, W. C., and Yen, J. H. (2009). Effect of carbendazim and pencycuron on soil bacterial community. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 172(1), 84–91.
World Health Organization (WHO). (2009). The WHO recommended classification of pesticides by hazard. World Health Organization, Geneva.
Xu, C., Cui, D., Lv, X., Zhong, G., and Liu, J. (2023). Heterogeneous distribution of carbofuran shaped by Pseudomonas stutzeri biofilms enhances biodegradation of agrochemicals. Environmental Research, 229, 115894.
Yang, Y., Wang, X., Wang, Y., Saleem, M., Mu, Y., Zheng, Y., and Zhang, Q. (2024). Pesticide contamination remediation by biochar-immobilized microorganisms: A review. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 21(2), 2225–2238.
Yaseen, M., Ullah, H., Mubarik, M., Jadoon, W. A., Ghayyur, S., Iftikhar, M., and Ghayyur, S. (2025). Evaluating pesticide-induced toxicity in Cyprinus carpio using hemato-biochemical biomarkers. Ecotoxicology, 34(8), 1489–1505.
Zhang, C., Xu, Y., Chu, B., and Sun, X. (2024). Mechanism and toxicity assessment of carbofuran degradation by persulfate-based advanced oxidation process. RSC Advances, 14(42), 30582–30590. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4RA05365F
Zhang, Y., Xu, Z., Chen, Z., and Wang, G. (2020). Simultaneous degradation of triazophos, methamidophos and carbofuran pesticides in wastewater using an Enterobacter bacterial bioreactor and analysis of toxicity and biosafety. Chemosphere, 261, 128054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128054
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Salihu Ibrahim; Ahmad Umar Bello; Jamila Mashi Ahmed, Kamaluddeen Bababgana, Uwais Muhammad Atiku, Kabiru Yakubu, Abba Babandi, Salihu Ibrahim
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
