ETHNOBOTANICAL POTENTIAL OF Carica papaya, Psidium guajava AND Azadirachta indica LEAF, BARK EXTRACTS AND THEIR COMBINATION IN INHIBITING THE GROWTH OF Salmonella typhi
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33003/Keywords:
Ethnobotanical, potential, Leaf, bark, extracts, SalmonellaAbstract
The rise of antibiotic resistance among bacterial pathogens, including Salmonella typhi, represents a significant public health challenge worldwide. Salmonella typhi, the causative agent of typhoid fever, continues to cause high morbidity and mortality among people especially in developing countries. An Isolates of Salmonella typhi was obtained from Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano and treated with three different concentrations (50, 75 and 100 mg/ml) of Azadirachta indica, Psidium Guajava and Carica papaya using disc diffusion method. The results revealed that all the treatments were highly significantly effective against the test organism. The leaf extracts were more effective against the growth of Salmonella typhi than the bark and the combined. Similarly, Carica papaya performed better against the test organism than both A. indica and P. guajava. However, Azadirachta performed better (17.71 mm) than the other treatments (8.86 mm for P. guajava and 11.89 mm for C. papaya.) when combined. The effects of the concentration revealed that the concentration of 100 mg/ml was most effective across all the test materials. Based on the results obtained from this study, it can be concluded that the test materials highly inhibit the growth of Salmonella typhi. Similarly, the leaves of the test materials are more effective than the barks. Also, the leaf of Carica papaya inhibited more Salmonella than either P. guajava or Azadirachta indica.
References
Alhodieb, F. S., Al-Mekhlafi, F. A., & Al-Ahmad, M. A. (2025). Exploring the bioactive
compounds of Carica papaya leaves: Phytol's role in combating antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Frontiers in CellularandInfectionMicrobiology,15, 1564787. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2025.1564787
Ali, M. A., Yusof, Y. A., Chin, N. L., & Ibrahim, M. N. (2017). Processing of Moringa leaves as a natural source of nutrients by optimizing the drying and grinding mechanisms. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 40(6), e12583. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12583
Ali, E., Ibrahim, M. A., & Ahmed, M. A. (2021). Extract of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf
exhibits antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 7(5), 1454–1460. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.511
Chechani B., Roat, P., Hada, S., Yadav, D. and Kunman, N. (2024). Psidium guajava: An Insight into Ethnomedicinal Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology, Combinational Chemistry & High Throughput Screening Vol. 27 (1): 2-39 URL https://snv63.ru1386-2073/article/view/643683
Defino, M. C. V. (2024). Antibacterial activity of Psidium guajava L. bark extracts against
gastroenteritis-causing bacteria. International Society for Clinical Research Journal, 2(1), 34–41. https://jurnal.unai.edu/index.php/isc/article/view/3547
Doughari, J. H., & Elmahmood, A. M. (2008). Effect of some chemical preservatives on the
shelf-life of sobo drink. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 2(1), 037–041.
Ezike, A. C., Akah, P. A., Okoli, C. O., & Ezeuchenne, N. A. (2010). Medicinal plants used in
wound care: A study of Prosopis africana (Fabaceae) stem bark. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 72(3), 334–339.
Gutierrez-Montiel, D., Guerrero-Barrera, A. L., Ramírez-Castillo, F. Y., Galindo-Guerrero, F.,
Ornelas-García, I. G., Chávez-Vela, N. A., de O. Costa, M., Avelar-Gonzalez, F. J., Moreno-Flores, A. C., Vazquez-Pedroza, E., Arreola-Guerra, J. M., & González-Gámez, M. (2025). Guava leaf extract exhibits antimicrobial activity in extensively drug-resistant (XDR) Acinetobacter baumannii. Molecules, 30(1), 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30010070
Jolley, K. A., Bray, J. E., & Maiden, M. C. J. (2018). Open-access bacterial population
genomics: BIGSdb software, the PubMLST.org website, and their applications. Wellcome Open Research, 3, 124.
Klemm, E. J., Shakoor, S., Page, A. J., Qamar, F. N., Judge, K., Saeed, D. K., & Baker, S.
(2018). Emergence of an extensively drug-resistant Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi clone harboring a resistance-conferring plasmid. Nature Genetics, 50(5), 952–956.
McFarland, J. (1907). The nephelometer: An instrument for estimating the number of bacteria in
suspensions used for calculating the opsonic index and for vaccines. JAMA, 49(14), 1176-1178. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1907.25320140022001f
Mogasale, V., Maskery, B., Ochiai, R. L., et al. (2014). Burden of typhoid fever in low-income
and middle-income countries: A systematic, literature-based update with risk-factor adjustment. The Lancet Global Health, 2(10), e570–e580.
Ogidigo, J. O., & Nwosu, F. (2022). Antimicrobial activity of Nigerian plants. African
Journal of Biotechnology, 21(4), 230–238.
Olwenyi, O. A., & Lukman, A. (2021). Antibiotic resistance in clinical settings: An overview.
Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 4(2), 42–53
Ogunleye, A. O., Lawal, O. A., & Oladipo, B. S. (2021). Antimicrobial activities of Carica
papaya, Azadirachta indica and Psidium guajava leave extracts. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences (IOSR-JPBS), 16(1), 35–42. Retrieved from https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jpbs/papers/Vol16-issue1/Series-5/F1601053542.pdf
Othman, L., Sleiman, A., & Abdel-Massih, R. M. (2019). Antimicrobial activity of polyphenols
and alkaloids in Middle Eastern plants. Frontiers in Microbiology, 10, Article 911. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00911
Ruksiriwanich, W., Khantham, C., Muangsanguan, A., Phimolsiripol, Y., Barba, F., Sringarm,
., Rachtanapun, P., Jantanasakulwong, K., Jantrawut, P. Chittasupho, C., Chutoprapat, R., Boonpisuttinant, K. and Sommano, S. R.(2022). Guava (Psidium guajava L.) Leaf Extract as Bioactive Substances for Anti-Androgen and Antioxidant Activities Plants (Basel) . 11(24):3514. doi: 10.3390/plants11243514
Sah, P., Fitzpatrick, M. C, B., Zimmer, C. F., Abdollahic, E., Juden-Kellyc, L., Moghadas, M. S.,
Singer, B.H and Galvani, A.P. (2020). Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2109229118
Sharma, R. C., & Roy, A. S. (2025). A review on comparative studies of phytochemical
evaluation and pharmacological activities of Calotropis species: Calotropis procera and Calotropis gigantea. Journal of Phytopharmacology, 14(1), 62–69. https://doi.org/10.31254/phyto.2025.14109
Wikipedia (2026). Retrieved March, 17, 2026.
World Health Organization. (2021). Antimicrobial resistance. Retrieved from
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance.
Wong, V. W., Teo, J., & Tan, M. P. (2015). Estimating the global burden of typhoid fever: A
systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Global Health, 5(2), 020407. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.05.020407
Wylie, M. R., & Merrell, D. S. (2022). The antimicrobial potential of the neem tree Azadirachta
indica. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 13, Article 891535. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.891535
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Salifu Christopher Odeje, Hanga Rabia
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
