THE QUALITY AND HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT OF POLYETHYLENE-PACKAGED TABLE WATER SUNLIGHT EXPOSED AND UNEXPOSED DURING STORAGE

Authors

Keywords:

Antimicrobial Resistance, Heavy Metals, Potable Water, Public Health, Waterborne Pathogens

Abstract

Exposure of sachet water to sunlight by vendors is a common practice in Nigeria which could affect its quality. In this study, 80 sachets of branded table water divided equally into group 1 (exposed to sunlight) and group 2 (unexposed to sunlight); were stored for 16 days. At four days interval, microbiological, physicochemical properties, minerals, and heavy metals concentration of the stored sachet water samples were determined using standard methods. There was reduction in total heterotrophic bacterial count (THBC), total coliform count (TCC), and total fungal count (TFC) of sachet water exposed to sunlight. The THBC, TCC, and TFC of all the samples ranged from 3.70-5.04, 0.00-3.95, 0.00-4.36 log10CFU/ml, respectively. Bacterial species isolated from the stored sachet water were resistant to most antibiotics. Non-microbiological properties of the stored sachet water were within the World Health Organization (WHO) permissible limits, with the exception of pH. The concentration of metals in the sachet water fluctuated during storage, whereas Cd and Pb was below detection limit. The non-microbiological properties of the stored sachet water monitored at intervals were significantly different (p<0.05), with few exceptions. Although the parameters met the WHO limits, pathogens and potentially toxic metals present in the stored sachet water could have health implications.

Dimensions

Adedire, O. M., Atere, A., Ogundipe, W. F., & Farinu, A. O. (2021). Effects of direct and indirect sunlight on polythene packs, sensory, microbial and chemical properties of sachet water. Journal of Advances in Biology and Biotechnology, 24(1), 25-34.

Adesakin, T. A., Oyewale, A. T., Mohammed, N. A., Bayero, U., Adedeji, A. A., Aduwo, I. A., Bolade, A. C., & Adam, M. (2022). Effects of prolonged storage condition on the physicochemical and microbiological quality of sachet water and its health implications: a case study of selected water brands sold within Samaru community, Northwest Nigeria. Microbiology Research, 13(4), 706-720. https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres13040051

Ahaotu I, Ichendu, M. O., & Maduka, N. (2022). Microbiological, nutritional and sensory evaluation of snack bars developed using Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean L.) and maize (Zea mays). African Journal of Microbiology Research, 16(1), 8-23. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR2021.9583

Ahmed, H., Zolfo, M., Williams, A., Ashubwe-Jalemba, J., Tweya, H., Adeapena, W., Labi, A., Adomako, L. A. B., Addico, G. N. D., Banu, R. A., Akrong, M. O., Quarcoo, G., Borbor, S., & Osei-Atweneboana, M. Y. (2022). Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in drinking water from the Greater Accra Region, Ghana: a cross-sectional study: December 2021-March 2022. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, 12300. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912300

Akharame, M. O., Ekhosuehi, A., Okolafor, F. I., & Sadoh, K. A. (2018). Effects of sunlight on the quality parameters of bottled water. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management, 22(5), 769-774. https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v22i5.31

Alalade, O. M., Okpo, N. O., Baba, J., & Aregbe, E. A. (2020). Antibiotic resistance phenotypes among Escherichia coli isolated from sachet and pipe-borne water from selected local government areas of Kaduna State, Nigeria. UMYU Journal of Microbiology Research, 5(2), 11-16. https://doi.org/10.47430/ujmr.2052.002

Allaq, A. A. A., Mahid, H. H., Yahya, E. B., Saleh, A. M., Sidik, N. J., Abdulsamad, M. A., Saad, N. R., Elengoe, A., & Abdul-Aziz, A. (2023). Emerging drinking water borne diseases: a review on types, sources, and health precaution. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, 35(31), 1-17.

America Public Health Association (APHA) (1998). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 18th Edition. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC. pp. 45-60.

America Public Health Association (APHA) (1999). American water works association and water environmental federation. Standard methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water, 20th ed. New York, USA.

Amoo, A. O., Asaju, C. I., Garba, N., Adeleye, A. O., Amoo, F. K., Adeniyi, K. A., Amoo, N. B. & Gebbe, H. M. (2025). Physicochemical and microbiological assessment of sachet water in Dutse Urban, Nigeria. Indonesian Journal of Green Chemistry, 2(1), 39-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.69930/ijgc.vxix.xxx

Angnunavuri, P. N., Attiogbe, F., & Mensah, B. (2022). Microbial contamination and quantitative microbial risk assessment of high density polyethylene (HDPE) film sachet water in Ghana. Journal of Water and Health, 20(10), 1587. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2022.163

Aroh, K. N., Eze, E. M., Ukaji, D., Wachuku, C. K., Gobo, A. E., Abbe, S. D., Teme, S. C., & Igoni, A. H. (2013). Health and environmental components of sachet water consumption and trade in Aba and Port Harcourt. Journal of Chemical Engineering and Material Science, 4(2), 13-22. https://doi.org/10.5897/JCEMS11.040

Balogun, M., Aruna, T., Akintayo, O., Imam, R., Shukurat, O., Lala, O., Kolawole, F., & Gbadebo, C. (2024). Quality assessment of different polyethylene-packaged groundwater in the Ilorin metropolis of Nigeria for compliance with standards. Potravinarstvo Slovak Journal of Food Sciences, 18, 366-385. https://doi.org/10.5219/1961

Barnett, E. O. I. & Hunter, B. B. (1972). Illustrated General of Imperfect Fungi. 3rd edition, Mmessota Burgles Publishing Company, Minneapolis, pp. 241-252.

Chinenye, I. J. & Amos, O. O. (2017). Effect of storage and exposure to sunlight on the quality of sachet water sold in Ibadan metropolis. Science Journal of Public Health, 5(4), 321-328. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sjph.20170504.17

Chinyere, O., Sanusi, Y., & Anafi, F. (2023). Assessment of the physico-chemical quality of Uturu section of Aku river in southeastern Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 42(2), 296-303. https://doi.org/10.4314/njt.v42i2.19

Chiwetalu, U. C., Nebechukwu, A. C., & Attah, O. H. (2022) Quality assessment for some sachet water produced in Enugu metropolis, Enugu-Nigeria. FUDMA Journal of Sciences, 6(2), 81-87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33003/ffs-2022-0602-926

Dada, A. C. (2013). Sachet water phenomenon in Nigeria: assessment of the potential health impacts of the potential health impacts. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 3, 015-021.

Dibua, U. E., Esimone, C. O., & Ndianefo, P. C. (2007). Microbiological and physiochemical characterization of sachet water samples marketed in Nsukka Campus of the University of Nigeria. Bio-Research, 5(1), 189-193.

Duwiejuah, A. B., Cobbina, S. J., & Akrong, M. O. (2013). Effect of storage on the quality of sachet-vended water in the Tamale metropolis, Ghana. Journal of Environmental Protection, 4, 629-637. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2013.46072

Edegbene, A. O., Yandevm, D., Omotehinwam T. O., Zakari, H. & Andy, B. O. (2025). Water quality assessment in Benue South, Nigeria: an investigation of physico-chemical and microbial characteristics. Water Science, 39(1), 279-290. https://doi.org/10.1080/23570008.2025.2483013

Ehiaghe, J. I., Amengialue, O. O., Ehiaghe, F. A., & Maduka, N. (2020). Plasmid profile of bacterial isolates from asymptomatic bacteriuria among undergraduate students of a tertiary institution in Benin City, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Microbiology, 34(1), 5007-5017.

Fadipe, O. O., Adeosun, J. O., Adeyanju, K. O., & Oguntola, M. O. (2020). Characteristics of packaged water under different storage conditions within Osogbo. UNIOSUN Journal of Engineering Environmental Sciences, 2(2), 87-97. https://doi.org/10.36108/ujees/0202.20.0221

Forstinus, N. O., Ikechukwu, N. E., Emenike, M. P., & Christiana, A. O. (2016). Water and waterborne diseases: a review. International Journal of Tropical Disease and Health, 12(4), 1-14.

Garba, A., Yahaya, M., Idris, Z. & Muhd, A. I. (2023). Assessment of groundwater heavy metal contamination in Hadejia metropolis, Jigawa State, Nigeria. FUDMA Journal of Sciences, 7(1), 47-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2023-0701-1156

Hammond, A. M., Antwi, B. Y., Von-Kiti, E., Amponsah, T. Y., Gyamera, B., & Ansong, E. A. (2024). Effect of storage conditions on sachet water quality in Accra, Ghana. Discover Water, 4(106), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-024-00123-8

Ichu, B. C., Nwogu, N. A., Opara, A. I., Agulanna, A. C. & Nkwoada, A. U. (2024). Heavy metal profile with health risk peculiarities in Enugu State and their long-term challenges in drinking water. Journal of Water and Health, 22 (5), 939-952. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2024.059

Imam, N., Abdurrahman, N., Isah, L. A., & Lawal, O. S. (2023). Progress on drinking water quality monitoring in the northern part of Nigeria: a catalyst to achieving sustainable development goals. FUDMA Journal of Sciences, 7(2), 152-158. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2023-0702-1472

Ire, F. S., Okoro, C. J., Ahaotu, I., & Maduka, N. (2024). Bacteriological and physiochemical analysis of drinking water sources in some parts of Nneato in Umunneochi Local Government of Abia State, Nigeria. Scientia Africana, 23(4), 211-222.

Ire, F. S., Eze, O. M., & Maduka, N. (2020). Influence of different wrapping materials on microbiological, physicochemical and sensory properties of condiment product ogiri-egusi. Journal of Life Bio-Science Research, 1(2), 34-43.

Isiukru, E. J., Opha, J. O., Isaiah, O. W., Orovwighose, B., & Emmanuel, S. S. (2024). Nigerias water crisis: abundant water, polluted reality. Cleaner Water 2, 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clwat.2024.100026

Jacob, S., Surma, N., Itodo, A. U., Yusuf, E. Y., Kutshak, P. I. & Eli, Z.W. (2025). Physical and chemical quality assessment of sachet water in Chikun Local Government Area, Kaduna State. International Journal of Science, Architecture, Technology and Environment, 2(5), 602-614. DOI: https://doi.org/10.63680/cvhtvytybrvhtryb32

Jimoh, F. A., Ajao, A. T., Aborisade, W. T., Abdulsalam, Z. B. & Kolawole, M. O. (2025). Bacteriological evaluation and physicochemical compliance of packaged water sold in Ilorin, Nigeria. FUDMA Journal of Sciences, 9(1), 180-185. DOI: https://doi.org./10.33003/fjs-2025-0901-3015

Kopdorah, S. W., Yusuf, A. B., Kolo, R. L., Gowal, E. M., Khalid, R. A., Zubair, A. A., Barde, A. S., Gotan, N. R., Denkok, Y., Gurumtet, I. & Tyohemba, S. T. (2023). Physicochemical analysis and heavy metal assessment of sachet water sold in Gashua metropolis of Yobe State, Nigeria. FUDMA Journal of Sciences, 7(3), 313-317. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2023-0703-1892

Maduka, N. & Ugbogu, O. C. (2024). A review on microorganisms and mycotoxin contamination of selected swallow meals- potential health risks to consumers. Heliyon 10, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e39311

Makwe, E. & Ukah, C. (2025). Health risk assessment of heavy metals in sachet water in Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria. International Journal of Environment and Pollution Research, 13(1), 48-69. doi: https://doi.org/10.37745/ijepr.13/vol13n14869

Manne, R., Kumaradoss, M. M. R. M., Iska, R. S. R., Devarajan, A. & Mekala, N. (2021). Water quality and risk assessment of copper content in drinking water stored in copper container. Applied Water Science, 12(27), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01542-x

Mberekpe, P. & Eze, N. (2014). Effect of preservation on the quality of sachet water consumed by households in Nsukka zone. Civil Environmental Research, 6(7), 25-31.

Nwankwo, E. J. & Odenigbo, C. (2022). Quality difference between sachet and bottled water produced under the same conditions. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 10(4), 07-12. https://doi.org/10.22271/fish.2022.v10.i4a.2698

Odu, N. N., Omunakwe, A. L., & Millicent, M. (2020). Comparative assessment on the physicochemical water quality of wells and boreholes in two Rivers State communities, Nigeria. International Journal of Research Studies in Microbiology and Biotechnology, 66(3), 5-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-9428.0603002

Ojekunle, Z. O. & Adeleke, J. T. (2017). The effect of storage on physical, chemical, and bacteriological characteristics of sachet water and bottled water marketed in Ibadan metropolis, Oyo State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 21(6), 1203-1211.

Okey-Wokeh, C. G., Obunwo, C. C., & Wokeh, O. K. (2021). Evaluation of water quality index using physicochemical characteristics of Ogbor River in Aba, Abia State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 25(1), 47-51. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v25i1.6

Olagoke, O. V., Awojobi, K. A., Adekeye, A. A., Olasupo, A. D., Aborisade, A. B., & Ogunride, T. O. (2018). Isolation and characterization of stream water bacteria from Esa-Oke metropolis. Journal of Medical Microbiology and Diagnosis, 7(2), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0703.1000276

Olisaka, F. N., Ehiaghe, J. I., Odigie, O., Maduka, N., Alabi, G. A., & Osabohien, G. (2021). Bacteriological quality assessment and molecular detection of antibiotic resistant genes present in bacteria isolated from ready-to-eat rice sold in selected markets in Benin City, Nigeria. BIU Journal of Basic and Applied Science, 6(2), 228-254.

Onosakponome, O. (2021). The effects of sun radiation on quality of sachet and bottled water. International Journal of Engineering Applied Sciences and Technology, 6(2), 192-208.

Osei, R. B., Doke, D. A., & Cobbina, S. J. (2023). Effect of sunlight on the quality of sachet drinking water. Ghana Journal of Science, Technology and Development, 9(1), 42-50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47881/393/967x

Some, S., Mondal, R., Mtra, D., Jain, D., Verma, D. & Das, S. (2021). Microbial pollution of water with special reference to coliform bacteria and their nexus with environment. Energy Nexus, 1, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2021.100008

Umoafia, N. E., Edet, U. O., Joseph, A. P., Henshaw, O. U., Mbim, E. N., Obeten, H., Edet, B. O., Edet, A., Ibor, O. R., Nkang, N., Louis, H., Nwaokorie, F. O., & Nkang, A. (2023). Impacts of sunlight exposure on physicochemical parameters, potential toxic metals, and microbial characteristics of sachet drinking water sold in Calabar metropolis, Nigeria. Springer Nature Applied Sciences, 5, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-023-05585-4

Umoafia, N. E., Edet, U. O., Joseph, A. P., Henshaw, O. U., Nkagafel, M. E., Obeten, H., Edet, B. O., Edet, A., Richard, I., Nwaokorie, F. O., & Nkang, N. (2022). Impact of exposure to sunlight before consumption of packaged potable water (sachet water) in Calabar metropolis, Cross River State, Southeastern Nigeria. Research Square, 1-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2159975/v1

Wogu, D. C., Ordinioha, B., Ideozu, R. U., & Chigozie, N. (2023). Assessment of physicochemical parameters and water quality in communities in Abia State, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Environment and Ecology, 22(4), 133-147.

Published

17-08-2025

How to Cite

THE QUALITY AND HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT OF POLYETHYLENE-PACKAGED TABLE WATER SUNLIGHT EXPOSED AND UNEXPOSED DURING STORAGE. (2025). FUDMA JOURNAL OF SCIENCES, 9(8), 172-187. https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2025-0908-3792

Issue

Vol. 9 No. 8 (2025): FUDMA Journal of Sciences - Vol. 9 No. 8

Section

Research Articles
Copyright & Licensing

How to Cite

THE QUALITY AND HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT OF POLYETHYLENE-PACKAGED TABLE WATER SUNLIGHT EXPOSED AND UNEXPOSED DURING STORAGE. (2025). FUDMA JOURNAL OF SCIENCES, 9(8), 172-187. https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2025-0908-3792